The Chemistry of Cannabis: Detection of Cannabis Farms

*This blog post is purely for educational purposes. We do not support the production, distribution, or consumption of Cannabis.

Welcome back! So, since you’ve clearly been overwhelmed by the amazingness of the information in our blog posts, we think you deserve a refresher. In previous blog posts, we have discussed the effects thatCannabis has on the brain, and the different forms through which Cannabis can enter the body and results in these effects. In this blog post, we’ll discuss new and innovative ways that law enforcement is using to detect Cannabis farms.

Scratch ‘N Sniff™

(yes, you read that right)

A charity organization based in London, England has come up with an innovative way to help police officers locate Cannabis farms. The organization has created Scratch ‘N Sniff™ cards. These Scratch ‘N Sniff™ cards that mimic the scent of Cannabis in its growing stage, and are being distributed to English citizens so that they can to familiarize themselves with the smell of growing Cannabis and can notify the police if they detect the scent. So far, the organization has issued more than 200,000 scratch and sniff cards to hotspots in England, and, there has been a 28% increase in information from the public on Cannabis farms.

Now, how do these Scratch ‘N Sniff™ cards work? The ideas of chemistry can be applied to the Scratch ‘N Sniff™ technology through the ideas associated with entropy. Entropy is the number of ways a system can be arranged. In this case, aroma molecules that are microencapsulated are at a state of low entropy, since they are enclosed in minute capsules. The manufacturing process of scratch and sniff cards utilizes this entropy idea. The diagram shown below illustrates the process. In general, the process includes taking the aroma-generating chemical and encapsulating it in gelatin or plastic spheres that are a few microns in diameter, and this traps the odor. A certain chemical catalyst is used to bring about the reaction which finalizes the encapsulation of the odor. In other words, the catalyst is the metaphorical “kick in the pants,” or the thing that bring about the reaction. This  reaction requires a “kick in the pants” because it will not happen on its own; this type of reaction prevents particles from diffusing, as they would “like” to, and in order to get particles to do something they don’t want to, you have to bribe them with energy.

When these capsules are given another metaphorical “kick in the pants,” or an activation energy, they are released and they dissipate and spread the scent. Even though the particles want to diffuse, a “kick in the pants” is required to give them enough energy to break through the capsule. This energy required to get this reaction going comes in the form of kinetic energy from a person, when he/she scratches the card, applying friction to the capsules. The aroma molecules are then released, and since they have more volume to diffuse into, they achieve a higher state of entropy.

This idea of  Scratch ‘N Sniff™ technology, then, can support the notion that the entropy of the universe is always increasing. Spontaneous reactions, which have a negative free energy value, are constantly occurring in the universe. The Scratch ‘N Sniff™ system is one primary example of this chemical theory. Since this technology embodies the principles underlying entropy, then it also applies to The Second Law of Thermodynamics. This law states that “In an isolated system, natural processes are spontaneous when they lead to an increase in disorder, or entropy.”

Thermal Cameras

Authorities are beginning to use thermal cameras to detectCannabis farms. Often, Cannabis growers employ heat lamps when growing indoors. Further modifications to the growing area typically include the addition of ventilation and irrigation systems. Thermal cameras are being used to detect growers who hideCannabis around other plants, rendering them invisible to the naked eye. However, the grower must make some changes to the soil, which allow these cameras to detect hidden plants. The soil is turned over and the vegetation around the plant is trimmed off to allow for better absorption of water and nutrients. As a result the soil also absorbs heat at a higher rate than the other surrounding plants. Consequently, they stand out in thermal scans.

Just like any other camera you use, thermal cameras detect light. However, they differ from conventional cameras in that they detect different wavelengths of light. Thermal cameras detect infrared light as opposed to visible light. Because the lamps generate heat, the system emits infrared radiation. At the atomic level, the heat is simply the movement of particles. When the particles collide with each other, they can affect each other and induce a dipole oscillation. Due to this volatile distribution of charge, electric and magnetic waves are emitted as photons within a certain range of frequencies. Finally, the hotter an object is, the shorter the wavelength it emits. Thus, thermal cameras display hotter areas closer to white and darker areas closer to black. Also, if an object is hot enough it can emit thermal radiation that is visible to the human eye, a simple example being fire.

Well, that’s all folks!

The Chemistry of Cannabis: Different Forms of Ingestion (Part 2)

*This blog post is purely for educational purposes. We do not support the production, distribution, or consumption of Cannabis.

Hello again, the Internet! If you’ve been following these posts, then you’ve been waiting anxiously for that second post on the different forms of ingestion of Cannabis. If you haven’t been following these posts, well, why not? But we know its been a while, so lets start with a little refresher. The rate at which the effects of THC are felt varies depending on the form in which it is ingested because both the percentage of THC and how quickly it gets into the bloodstream are affected by form. For this post, we’ll be discussing some of the less common forms by which Cannabis is ingested: pills, nasal and oral sprays, tinctures, oils, and lotions (yes, we are aware that one does not ingest lotion or oil, so it not a form of ingestion, but “Different Forms of Ingestion” is a lot nicer of a title that “DifferentWays Cannabis Can Enter the Bloodstream”, don’t you agree?).

Pills

When Cannabis is ingested for medical purposes, it is by a pill. The effects of ingesting a pill is similar to those experienced when eating or drinking Cannabis in that the effects take a while to kick in, but last relatively long. However, the main difference here is that the pills contain a synthetic cannabinoid as opposed to THC.

For example, the name-brand pill Marinol® contains a substance called dronabinol, which is a synthetic THC compound. The chemical formula of dronabinol is the same as that of THC, but it has a different chemical structure. The two are isomers. They are similar enough in structure that they can bind to the same receptors, and thus stimulate the brain in the same way.

When ingested, the capsule is almost completely absorbed (90-95%), and only a minute amount actually reaches circulation (10-20%). This accounts for the different experiences between takingCannabis through food/drink and pills. Since only a small amount of the synthetic cannabinoid reaches the bloodstream, the pills don’t deliver the complete effects of THC.

Nasal and Oral Sprays

For medical uses Cannabis can also be ingested through nasal sprays. A benefit of this form is the deliverance of a consistent dose per spray. Sprays are formed by forcing liquids through a small opening, causing the droplets to disperse. The droplets stay whole because of surface tension, which is caused by intermolecular forces between the water molecules. The cannabinoids in Cannabis are generally larger non-polar molecules or only small slightly polar molecules, so the majority of their intermolecular interactions come from the london dispersion forces, which dominates for large molecules, and some dipole-dipole interaction between the polar ends and the water. The droplets, when sprayed into the nose, evenly disperseonto the mucous membrane and diffuse through micropores into the capillaries. The same process occurs when taking oral sprays because the mouth is also lined with a mucous membrane.

Tinctures

In this case, a tincture is solution of Cannabis extract and ethanol. It is made by leaving the plant in a container of ethanol, and letting it sit for a few weeks. Ethanol has a polar region and a nonpolar region, just like many of the cannabinoids in Cannabis. The Cannabis extract is soluble in ethanol because both the solute and solvent are slightly polar, thus the two are soluble and do form a solution. This is one of the applications of the principle “like dissolves like”, which means that substances of one polarity are soluble in other substances of the same polarity. In this case, it is the polar ends of the two substances that allowed them to have significant intermolecular forces. These forces are what allow the tincture solution to form. Officially, a tincture is at least 25% ethanol by volume,which means that there are 25 g of ethanol for each milliliter of solvent.

Oils

In some cases, oil is the preferred form of ingesting Cannabis. It comes as a resin-like substance (organic substance which insoluble in water) that contains cannabinoids extracted from the Cannabis plant. The THC content of oils typically lies above 60%, and it is the most potent of the major forms. A recent article talked about a girl whose seizures were suppressed with cannabinoids extracted into oil. The strain used was bred specifically to be high in CBD (cannabidiol) and low in THC. Cannabidiol, which you can see to the right, is similar both structurally and chemically to THCa, and is known to be beneficial medically and has no psychoactive effects.

Lotions

Another form that Cannabis takes is topical lotion. It provides more targeted pain relief than the other forms of Cannabis offer. To see several research articles on the topical use of Cannabis, click here. The way the lotion works is that the cannabinoids within the lotion are absorbed into the skin and bind with the CB2 receptors in the body, activating the body’s system for reducing inflammation and pain. How are the cannabinoids effectively dissolved into the lotion? Cannabis is lipophilic, meaning that it can be dissolved into fats or lipids, i.e. the lotion, then it can consequently easily diffuse across cell membranes in your body.

That concludes our discussion on the various forms through which Cannabis can reach the bloodstream. Next time: new ways that are being employed to find Cannabis farms.

The Chemistry of Cannabis

Detection in the Body

Well everyone, this is our sad farewell. This is going to be the last blog post on The Chemistry of Cannabis. For our final topic, we’re going to discuss how Cannabis is detected in the body. For this post, we’re going to focus on one of the more common methods of Cannabis detection in the body: hair testing. Additionally, we’re going to focus on one of the more standard methods of analyzing hair: gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. We know that sounds like a lot of big words and a pretty confusing thing, but don’t worry, its not as bad as you think. Now, we don’t want to spoil too much in the intro, so we’re going to move right into the topic.

Hair Analysis

Before we go into hair analysis, let’s talk a little bit about why this method is used. First, it is non-invasive. Second, it is cheaper than most other methods of Cannabis detection. Finally, Cannabis can still be detected in hair months after consumption, while other methods cannot be reliably performed after several days. This has to do with the nature of how Cannabis gets into the hair. During the growth phase, every strand of hair is connected to the body’s circulatory system. Consequently, the metabolites, or products of metabolism, ofCannabis are deposited in the hair through the bloodstream, and become the chemical that reveals prior use ofCannabis. As the hair grows, the section in which the Cannabis metabolites reside is pushed up, and the deposit contents remain unchanged. A diagram of human hair containing chemical substances is shown to the right. Theoretically, one can test deposits from years ago, although most tests only go as far back as 90 days. Going more in depth, there are multiple ways of actually detecting certain Cannabis metabolites in hair.

 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry

Before this process begins, the hair shafts first need to be decontaminated. Hair shafts are washed with methanol (CH4O), the structure of which is seen to the left, to remove external contamination. This compound is used because it dissolves any contaminants that are present while leaving the hair intact. Methanol is not corrosive, and so it will not break down the hair. Additionally, it has a polar and a non-polar end. Remember the saying “like dissolves like”? It is the general rule for solubility; molecules tend to dissolve other molecules that have the same polarity. Because of this concept, polar and nonpolar contaminants are attracted to the methanol and virtually all potential contaminants can be washed away. After decontamination is complete, the hair matrix is broken down. Sodium hydroxide is commonly used because it is highly basic and thus corrosive. Compounds are released from the hair matrix, and can now be analyzed for specific drug metabolites.

Next, the two-step analysis begins. The first step is gas chromatography (GC). Chromatography is often used to separate colored dye into individual components. The same idea applies here: the chemicals in a hair strand are separated and, if present, Cannabis can be detected. One microliter of the mixture containing the compounds is injected into the sample column. Then, the sample column is heated to a temperature above the boiling point of all the compounds. The vapor is carried by an inert, or chemically inactive, gas through the coiled column, which is cooler than the sample column. The coil is packed with diatomaceous earth, or very porous rock, which is then coated with a liquid with a high boiling point. The basic setup for this process is shown in a diagram to the right.

Now, this is where this really gets interesting. Some compounds have very strong intermolecular forces, or interactions between the same molecules, so these compounds “want” to be closely packed in the solid state, and thus have a high boiling point. These compounds will condense on the diatomaceous earth. However, some of the compound will sublimate again into the gas phase until an equilibrium is established. Because the molecules are constantly condensing and subliming, the molecules with strongest intermolecular forces take the longest to move through the column with the inert gas.

Other compounds will dissolve in the liquid. Their polarity affects their solubility in the compound, and so molecules with the same polarity as the liquid will spend less time in the gas phase and take some time to move with the inert gas (although less time than those that completely condense out). The molecules that travel with the inert gas the fastest are those that remain in the gas stage the longest. These compounds have weak intermolecular forces which cause low boiling points, and so the cooler temperature of the chamber is warm enough to keep them in the gas stage.

As you can see, the differing characteristics of molecules affect the speed at which they travel through the column, so they are separated based on these characteristics. As each one reaches the end of the column, they are fed into a mass spectrometer. Mass spectrometry enables precise identification and quantification of each distinct component. In a mass spectrometer, the separated compounds are first ionized by knocking away an electron, resulting in a net positive charge. Then, the compounds are set into motion and deflected with either an electric or a magnetic field (the molecule needs to be charged to be able to be deflected by one of these fields). The degree of reflection is dependent on the mass of the compound; heavier molecules are deflected at a smaller angle than lighter molecules are. Some simple illustrations of how this process looks are shown in the image below. Mathematical analysis is done to relate the degree of reflection to the mass, and violà, you have the mass of the compound, which serves to identify the constituent elements. If a suspected molecule has the same mass and moves through the column at the same speed as a standard sample of a Cannabis metabolite would, then the presence of Cannabis in the bloodstream has been verified.

Now, of course, gas chromatography used with mass spectrometry isn’t the be-all, end-all to hair analysis. There are various other methods used to analyze hair, and new ones are constantly being researched and developed. Additionally, hair analysis isn’t the only method used to detect Cannabisin the body. Cannabis can be detected in many different parts of the body, including in blood, saliva, and urine. The various methods and the techniques used to employ them are where we leave you, and hopefully we’ve been able to teach you a little bit about one of the most effective and common methods.

The Contemporary Rise of Cannabis: Understanding the Chemistry Behind It

If you’re like us, then you haven’t been able to escape the media blast about the legalization of Cannabis, throughout the United States, whether for medicinal or recreational uses. In recent years, Cannabis has become a central contemporary issue in our society. All over the US, we see an increase of recognition of legalizing marijuana laws. In 1970, it was not even considered by state legislatures, but much has changed. Today it has been addressed by over half of the states in the country, being legalized for medical uses in 15 states, and fully legalized in 2. This rapidly rising contemporary issue has also given rise to some questions on our part. What is it like chemically? How does it affect the brain?  Since it is a popular topic in our society, it is our responsibility to know the answers to these questions. After all, it may, if not already, have a direct impact on our lives.

The Endocannabinoid System

To understand how Cannabis affects the brain, first you need to understand the endocannabinoid system, part of our own brains. Notice a similarity between the plant and the biological system? We did too; the endocannabinoid system is named for the plant that led to its discovery, and the similarity in their names will serve as an indicator of exactly how closely related. The endocannabinoid system is the system in the body that maintains homeostasis, the body’s equilibrium.  Wherever and whenever there is injury, the endocannabinoid system is stimulated by the binding of cannabinoids, or proteins that affect the endocannabinoid system, to their receptors, or doorways to the endocannabinoid system. These receptors are found throughout the body: in the brain, organs, connective tissues, glands and immune cells. When a cannabinoid binds to its receptor, it tells that endocannabinoid system, “Hey! You need to make some of this to make that better!” or “Over here! There’s not enough of this! You need to make more!” This is basically how the endocannabinoid system works to maintain homeostasis in the body – it maintains the equilibrium between various necessary chemicals in the body.

Now that you have a basic understanding of how the endocannabinoid system works, it’s time to get more specific. Scientists have identified two cannabinoid receptors: CB1,  in the nervous system, connective tissues, gonads, glands, and organs; and CB2,  in the immune system. When each one of these receptors is activated, the each result in a different action. The receptors are like the reactants to a chemical reaction. Once the reactants (receptors) are activated, they undergo a reaction (a chemically signaled process) that leads to unique products (effects). While not all are well understood, there are some that are.

The cannabinoids we know more of are known as anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). They are synthesized on-demand in the cell, and don’t have an effect that moves far outside the region they were synthesized in. This is where we get back to Cannabis.

Phytocannabinoids  

There is a special class of cannabinoids known as phytocannabinoids, which are similar enough to the cannabinoids produced in the human body to bind to the cannabinoid receptors. Delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the most active cannabinoid in the Cannabis plant. In the picture here, the chemical structures of anandamide, the human cannabinoid, and THC, the  phytocannabinoid, are shown. Check out the similarities in their structures.

The Brain: Recreation

These similarities allow THC to bind to the cannabinoid receptors in the brain. The receptors are found in the regions of the brain that influence pleasure, memory, thinking, concentration, movement, coordination, and sensory and time perception, all of which are affected by the use of Cannabis. This stimulates the brain cells to release dopamine, the chemical agent responsible for pleasure. Overall, this process is like adding more reactant to a chemical reaction – the reactant is THC, and the product is dopamine. Because more reactant has been added, the reaction will shift toward the products, thus resulting in the advanced release of dopamine.

However, there are more effects to the use of Cannabis than the short-term ones mentioned above. The long-term effects are the result of frequent use that permanently shifts the equilibrium of the system. The receptors need less and less stimulation to produce the same amount of dopamine and other chemicals (you need less reactant to get the same amount of product). The heightened release of these chemicals disrupts coordination, balance, and cognitive ability. They affect the ability of the brain to form new memories, and when the concentration of THC is high enough it can result in episodes of psychosis due to extreme release of chemicals.

The Brain: Medicine

Now that we’ve discussed the effects of recreational Cannabis use, let’s not forget the medical uses. As you (hopefully) know at this point, Cannabis affects the endocannabinoid system, which maintains homeostasis. A functional endocannabinoid system is essential for homeostasis and consequently good health. Small doses of Cannabis can stimulate the body to make more cannabinoids and build more cannabinoid receptors, which can help the body maintain homeostasis more easily and thus combat the negative effects of a wide range of illnesses. It helps diseases for the same reasons it causes long-term side effects.

The recent changes in attitude towards Cannabis use makes the study of Cannabis important. The popularity of this drug is attributed to the chemical effects of its use. The presence of cannabinoids in the human body produces these effects. When Cannabis is ingested the THC in it is similar enough to the body’s cannabinoids to be recognized, and thus disturbs the body’s equilibrium. Using the same process, if the equilibrium is disturbed, Cannabis can be used to restore it, which is why it can be called “medical marijuana”. While many articles focus on the legal and moral issues, sometimes it can help to take a look at the science behind all this.